KNP Farming Systems Survey
SUMMARY REPORT

• Provide a description of commonly-occurring farming systems in Khirthar National Park.
• Explore the relationship of farming communities to the wider environment, and purposes, of a National Park.
• Speculate on future trends in farming systems within the Park area.
• Consider possible strategies for sound land use in the future.

The objectives of farming communities in KNP are strongly shaped by the arid environment in which they are located. Their needs for personal satisfaction and social and cultural acceptance are tempered by requirements of survival and the search for stability and continuity in demanding circumstances. Strategies which reduce risk will generally be rewarded - albeit it at a relatively low level of welfare and income - but must be balanced with the increasing expectations of a modernising world, which usually require a higher level of risk-taking.

A range of additional opinions was gathered through informal discussions with farmers, farm families and numerous key representatives. Official statistics were collected for related information, where possible. A number of transects and visits were made to most areas of the Park, to add to the general picture of farming in KNP.

• Land
  The location of villages is a response, in part, to soils (and fertility), slope and access to water. Farming villages are clustered in reasonably-defined locations on the plains, valleys and foothills. There is no cropping on hillsides due to a lack of soil cover, exposure and lack of water. The higher mountain areas are reserved for wildlife and herding of livestock is prohibited. Cultivated soils are mainly fine Aeolian silts and silty clays. Sandy soils in some areas limit suitability for irrigation. Salt levels in soils (and water) of some irrigated areas are high and may inhibit crop growth.
• Weather
  KNP is in an arid environment subject to highly erratic rainfall and high summer temperatures. This restricts cropping to irrigated fields in the relatively cooler winter months, except after monsoon rainfall. Good monsoon years allow extensive cropping of non-irrigated fields. Occasional and significant rainfall events contribute to high run-off rates and soil erosion. Wind erosion is also a major land-shaping factor. In the northern area of the Park, evapotranspiration rates are estimated at 2240mm/annum, while rainfall varies from zero to 600mm (average 180 mm) per annum. In the southern areas rainfall is slightly higher and evapotranspiration lower, which allows the integration of irrigated fruit trees in the farming system.
• History
  Archaeologists claim evidence of irrigated and dryland farming for at least 5,000 years in the Kirthar region. Locations will have shifted as springs have dried or changed - possibly a result of tectonic activity - but farming systems have been developed and continuously adapted over a considerable time.
• People
  Given the precarious nature of existence in a hot arid environment, the farming systems in KNP tend to emphasise survival and reduce risk, as they do in many other parts of the Sindh Plains. People survive by adapting to seasonal and annual changes in climate and resource availability (mainly water and grazing), and by migrating with their livestock to and from areas outside the Park, and within the Park's boundaries.
• Water
  Water is the most dominant factor affecting farming systems in the area, particularly in times of drought. Originally based on irrigation from natural springs, most cropping is now dependent on raised or pumped water channeled to distinct, small irrigated areas. The area irrigated is in direct correlation to the volume of water that can be pumped and distributed. This, in turn, is dependent upon the rate of recharge from catchment areas in the south Kirthar Mountains. Six years of drought (by 2000) has caused water levels to drop in wells. Many have dried completely; others can only sustain relatively low levels of pumping. The irrigated area has declined significantly as a result. The situation will only change after substantial recharge following one or two years of good monsoon rainfall.

Irrigated land
The smallest, but most important, area for crop farming is irrigated fields. Villages tend to be located within the highly irrigated areas, which supply the bulk of grain and cash crops, vegetables, plus crop residues eaten by farm livestock. There is a relatively high density of large trees within close proximity to the irrigated lands, where land and tree tenure is more tightly held and, hence, less cutting occurs. There are far more trees in total outside the irrigated areas but many are heavily cut. Some lucerne and other fodder species are irrigated and fed strategically to livestock.

Originally based on small gravity-fed systems sourced from natural springs and pools, irrigation water is now primarily lifted or pumped. Camel-powered waterwheels were the first mechanical systems and still widely used but diesel-powered pumps now dominate. Dug wells are most common, ranging from 5 - 20 m deep; shallow pits in river beds are frequently seen along some of the main ephemeral river courses. Drilled narrow bores are of growing importance, typically extending to 100 m or deeper.

The irrigated lands are cropped most heavily in the cooler months (October - March), when planted to wheat (the major subsistence staple) and onions (major cash crop), among others. A significantly smaller area is planted in the hot summer months (April - September), usually to cotton but also some hot season staples (eg, millet and cluster bean) if there has been inadequate rain to enable the planting of post-monsoon dryland crops. Smaller areas of vegetable (eg, aubergine, chili, bottle gourd) can be seen throughout the year.

The total area of irrigable land was estimated to be >14,500 hectares, and expanding. The amount of land irrigated in any year is dependent upon groundwater recharge rates which, in turn, depend upon rainfall within the mountain catchments. In 2000, the Park was entering the sixth successive year of drought conditions (average annual rainfall <60 mm). Many wells had completely dried, a large proportion of the irrigated lands were unused and water application rates looked sub-optimal. In total, it was estimated that probably a minimum of 3,000 ha had been irrigated in the 1999/2000 winter season, or less than on-third of capacity. The summer irrigated area was estimated to be around 1,000 ha, or less.

Salt-affected crops were observed at many locations. Respondents nearly always classified individual wells in their local areas in terms of the brackishness of the water and its suitability for humans, animals and crops. The drying of wells was commonly recounted, together with the gradual reduction in areas that could be cropped.

Dryland cropping
The dryland cropping systems are believed to have a history dating back more than 5,000 years. The key components are a catchment area (which may be 5-6 km distant), long, low compacted earth banks and natural or dug water channels.

Moderate rain showers in the catchment area will run off in a flash flood through ephemeral streams and rivers. This water is diverted into the dryland fields through the channels and trapped behind the earth banks. A depth of 0.6 1.0 m is said to be enough to allow cropping. The water quickly infiltrates into the root zone; once the surface is dry, the land is tilled and seeded.

Cropping of dryland fields can only occur after monsoon rains, ie, from July to September. A variety of cereals and pulses are grown, including sorghum, millets, mung and cluster bean, Sesbania spp., as well as condiments such as sesame and oils seeds. One or more crops may be planted on a field per year - mixed or in sequence - depending upon the duration and quantity of rain, and the water trapping structures. The rainfed fields are fenced with branches of thorn trees and shrubs, consuming vast amounts of labour and vegetation.

Many combinations of water distribution systems were observed. Some fields were fed directly from a catchment, with excess water discharging into a river channel, others received water in a serial arrangement, with the upstream fields being filled first, then discharging excess water to those further down the valley; flatter plaints were often fed by a series of parallel channels, each acting as a separate headwater for a distinct group of fields.

It should be emphasised that the dryland system is completely dependent upon the channeling and trapping of run-off water from the catchments. Direct rainfall on the fields is insufficient to support cropping. Given the erratic nature of the monsoon rains in KNP, this means that individual dryland fields may be cropped only once in six or seven years, or occasionally in successive years.

The area covered by these fields is extensive. Mainly located on plains and valleys with reasonable soils, they can also be found along streambeds, on plateaus and even at the tops of some flatter mountains. The estimate is that at least 58,000 ha are used at some time for dryland cropping. This figure may well extend up to 100,000 ha of land having been "disturbed" for agricultural use at some time, the equivalent of one-third the total land area in KNP.

Many of the banks associated with the fields are extremely old. Their total length must exceed hundreds of kilometres - perhaps thousands - and they represent an enormous investment of energy and resources over a very long period.

Rangeland/browsing
Use of KNP's plains and lower hill slopes for herded grazing and browsing is widespread and covers substantially more area (at a low level of intensity) than the irrigated and dryland cropping fields combined. Much of this herding is on fields that are used occasionally for rainfed cropping. In years of good monsoon rains these fields are cropped and need protection from stock by means of thorn scrub fences.

Goats and sheep, plus fewer cattle, are the major economic livestock; camels and provide power for lifting water and donkeys for water transport; cattle and camels are used for land preparation and seeding.

Animals are grazed within and around the villages during rain periods; as the land dries, herders move the flocks and herds further into the general Park area to seek feed, often for many days at a time. Large numbers of livestock are also moved out of the Park in drought periods, in view of the very limited quantities of feed available. Lopping of tree branches (particularly Prosopis cineria) to provide feed is a common practice to sustain animals living in the Park, especially during the dry times.

Given the mobility of people within and beyond the Park, it is difficult to quantify the domestic livestock population with great accuracy. Overall, it is estimated that the minimum total farm livestock population - ie, during prolonged drought periods - is equivalent to 13,500 - 15,000 Livestock Units (LU), where 1 LU is the equivalent of 250 kg liveweight of herbivores. This minimum would represent approximate populations (head) of 50,000 goats, 15,000 sheep, 9,000 cattle, 2,000 donkeys and 1,000 camels present in the Park during the early months of 2000. Years recording higher rainfall would see an influx of farm livestock as their owners return to the Park - estimated that the populations might increase by 75 per cent above the minimum figures.

It is further suggested that at least half of the Park's total land area (150,000 hectares) is affected by the demands for animal feed, through grazing, browsing or the lopping of shrubs and trees. While feeding is largely concentrated adjacent to the settlement and cropping areas, drought periods necessitate the movement of animals through the most arid and remote parts of the Park, including all foothills.

Irrigated cropping + livestock
Most farmers with access to water, usually wells, crop irrigated land and also rear some livestock, often in substantial numbers. These graze around the village but move further into the Park for grazing as dry periods lengthen. Irrigation farmers also grow dryland crops on a flexible basis. The extent of their irrigated area will vary, depending upon the volume of underground water available each year. Some fodder crops are grown to supplement feed for grazing stock, and crop residues are fed to stock.

Livestock + intermittent dryland cropping
Probably the most widespread system in KNP. Dryland cropping alone is too unreliable to provide permanent family sustenance. Dryland fields are spread throughout the Park's lowland areas. Use is "opportunistic" in that the fields can only be utilized after erratic rainfall events. In dry years, water fed to the lowest-lying fields may be used to grow small areas of drought tolerant crops. The large area devoted to dryland fields, plus the substantial energies devoted to construction and maintenance of attendant earthworks and fencing, indicates that they are immediately utilized after sufficient rain has fallen. Residents (and some outsiders) migrate back into the Park after a successful monsoon season.

Animal herding
Many people do not have good access to water for irrigation and are almost entirely reliant on raising animals, especially in dry years. They usually have a permanent home site but some family members are frequently elsewhere accompanying the flocks and herds as they graze and browse across large areas of the Park and outside KNP in the Indus irrigation areas.

The role of trees and vegetation
Trees are a significant resource to all systems for a variety of purposes, including animal feed, fencing, firewood, construction materials, ploughs, shade and fruits. Drought periods impose significant stresses on trees throughout KNP, being subjected to frequent lopping and deliberate pollarding.

The demand for firewood is already substantial and will increase with every migration back into the Park after monsoon rain. Combining a conservative average of 8 kg firewood per household per day (many households are multi-generation and will hold 20 or more people) with a minimum of 12,000 households in the Park yields an estimate of 60 tonnes of firewood used each day, equivalent to 20,000 tonnes per year.

Fuel wood cutting (illegal) from rangelands and mountainous areas surrounding larger towns impacts severely on the sustainability of herding systems and wildlife populations.

Trees and especially the many woody shrubs (eg, Capparis spp., Ziziphus spp., Salvadora olivia, Prosopis spp., Senna spp.) provide important protection from water and wind erosion on dryland fields throughout KNP, even if they detract from yields in times of cropping.

There is no reason to doubt these estimates. However, it is worth noting that, at the functional level, the tenurial arrangements affecting farming systems are similar to those elsewhere in the Sindh, albeit it on a different scale.

Many farm families in KNP operate on various forms of sharing arrangements; rental arrangements appear less common. Most tenurial arrangements are ultimately expressed in terms of shares of physical output, frequently associated with associated shares and obligations relating to required inputs. Some typical examples are given below:

Cropping
A large proportion of crops are grown by share-cropping farmers who can have a long or short relationship with the landowner. This is a result of the high levels of mobility of some people within the Park, particularly those with no access to irrigated land. They move to another part of the Park for a season or more, returning home after a rain event.

The most common sharing system observed was one which divides the yield into eight parts (12.5% per share): the landowner receives 12.5 per cent, the water provider 50 per cent and the share-cropper 37.5 per cent. Input costs are shared between the landowner and share-cropper; the landowner's share may consist of providing a tractor for land tillage, etc.

Many combinations of the basic divisions can be observed. Sometime the landowner and water provider are the same person and so receives 67.5 per cent of output; the sharecropper may provide a pump and uses another person's well to irrigate a third person's land, and so on.

Some larger landowners run farms on a wage-paying basis, hiring labour to work under the farm's manager.

Animals
Animal management and herding has three basic options, all of which might be present in one flock at one time - direct ownership; sharing; wage payment. In the latter case, herdboys include other persons' animals, for a charge per head per month.

Sharing of animals is common. Herdboys run the flock on behalf of the owner. Young males are sold every year or second year and returns divided on a 50:50 basis; every four years, the herd is divided into four equal groups, with one group (25 per cent) assigned to the herder and the balance to the owner.

Water
The importance of water is highlighted in the earlier section, with the largest share of output (50%) assigned to the provider of water. Such ownership rights can extend to natural springs - the owner of a spring or pool which is used for irrigation receives similar privileges as the owner of a well, which obviously confers enormous local influence.

The dryland cropping systems raise issues of water access and eligibility. The channels transferring run-off to the fields have be maintained, at least, and sometimes dug. Frequently there are multiple users of a single delivery channel and, since upstream fields always get first use of any water, there is potential for conflict over retention and discharge to downstream users. Most such arrangements are subject to long-established local village protocols.

Numerous issues were raised informally during discussions. The most frequent related to water and weather: everywhere, farm families were keen to have more wells, pumps, bores and dams. A reliable water supply means more reliable irrigated cropping, greater certainty, reduced movement and, they hope, increased income and welfare.

Attitudes to the Park were also discussed on a number of occasions. Most villagers are aware of the restrictions placed on grazing (but do not necessarily adhere to them, particularly in drought periods). There was a sense of pride in the Park but a strong preference that "Park" and "non-Park" be more clearly delineated, even by fencing. They felt that the lowlands and cultivable areas belong to people, with only the steeper hills and mountains reserved for wild animals.

• increasing access to - and openness of - markets,
• the growing availability of transport and
• the relative cheapness of portable diesel power.

Markets
Villagers have long been accustomed to trade and exchange of products and services. Their decisions about farming are not based entirely on the needs of local subsistence. Grain crops, vegetable crops, animals and animal products are consumed locally and also traded. Some crops are grown specifically for distant markets and sale: onions, for example, are said to have become significant only in the last 4-8 years, sold in Karachi. Villagers buy-in large quantities of manufactured foods, cigarettes and other products.

Transport
A large part of this is driven by an increase in motorised transport in KNP - motor cycles, trucks and buses. An expanding network of informal roads and tracks has been established to many formerly "remote" parts. Inward and outward movements of people, goods and information is more rapid: the pace of responses to any changes both within and outside the Park is clearly quickening.

Currently the price of the main cash crops (onions and cotton) is extremely low and is affecting the viability bility of irrigation enterprises. Because of this, and the extreme lack of water, large landlords are apparently subsidizing the farming and sustenance of many farming families in the Park.

Portable diesel power
No villager would accept the hypothesis that diesel engines are cheap to buy and run as, on an individual basis, they represent a very substantial investment. However, the rapid increase in the number of diesel-powered wells and diesel-driven drilling rigs is a clear indication that many have chosen to invest, including the substantial credit charges that most have to bear.

Diesel engines power water pumps and water is the commodity most desired as it provides some sense of stability and predictability for the farmer. The older stationary engines were expensive in both relative and absolute terms but the newer lighter models, usually sourced from PR China, are extremely popular and very versatile. They can be disassembled and moved around the Park on public transport, have few key components and spare parts are cheap, relative to the costs of digging and maintaining the wells and irrigation they service.

Drought
The impact of the current deep and continuing drought is pervasive throughout all physical, social and economic environments of the Park. In terms of farming, many wells are dry; others are extracting water at historically low depths. The irrigated area has shrunk; animal feed is scattered and low in both quantity and quality. There has been a very large exodus of people and farm livestock.

Poverty
KNP has always been a relatively marginal area for human occupation. Many examples were noted of extreme poverty, especially in the more remote herding communities with no access to irrigation water. People there lead very hard and desperate lives.

Human and animal mobility
The flows of people in and out of KNP has a long tradition. It is the main means by which groups attempt to match their demands for resources with resources available. Drought reduces the availability of animal feed in particular, plus the production of irrigated crops, so the animals must be moved out to avoid excessive losses. Good monsoon rains will prompt a reverse in the flows.

Unexpected was the extent of movement within the Park. Many people in dryland cropping regions will move temporarily to an irrigated zone and commence share-cropping for a season or longer. Numerous abandoned houses were seen and it was never clear whether they were permanently deserted, whether the owners had moved outside the Park or were still elsewhere within its nominal boundaries.

Water
Access to water, particularly for irrigation, draws sharp lines across communities. Rural families consistently nominate reliable and permanent water as their most urgent need: more wells, pumps, dams, channels. More water means more irrigated land - greater security and stability; less risk; reduced need for migration.

The extent of dryland fields
The area of dryland fields - and their attendant earthworks - within KNP was most striking. Roughly tilled and quickly available for sowing after a monsoon rain, these fields represent a potentially quick return to a very heavy investment of time and energy.

Dependence upon animals
The level of importance of animals within the farming systems was, again, very striking. These represent a source of food and income, a store of capital; and a buffer against prolonged drought. They are also a portable and tradable commodity. The total numbers are unknown but are very substantial. The ratio of goats to sheep increases in dry times. Cattle, although fewer in number, each represent about 10 small ruminants in terms of pressure on the land and forage supply. o Importance of trees Utilized for a variety of purposes, trees (particularly Prosopis cineraria and Acia nilotica) are an important source of animal feed, especially in extended dry periods. They are considered key capital items: some villagers will remain behind when other members migrate from the Park, specifically to protect their trees from lopping or cutting for firewood. Trees in rangeland areas, where land tenure is not as clear, have been heavily cut for fuel and other purposes. Only one instance of trees being planted and well protected (Neem tree) was encountered during the study in the northern areas of KNP. In the southern area of the park, the planting and protection of fruit trees is common (especially by bigger land owners).

Population and area estimates
A first-time visitor to Kirthar will probably be struck by the size, dryness and apparent emptiness of the Park. There are some occasional village houses, a few domestic livestock and patches of green associated with irrigation. Human presence is distinct but appears to occupy a very limited area of the total resource.

After a few days, however, these perceptions starts to shift. It becomes apparent that the dryland fields, with their banks and channels, are found throughout almost all plains and valleys - only the harshest, gravelly, stony and rocky ground has not been tested with a plough at some time. Small clusters of dwellings are tucked away in the many folds of land or within valleys, often with small irrigated fields; wells are very numerous and people, with or without their livestock, pop up in the most unexpected places.

The picture that gradually builds is a landscape in which human activity is very pervasive, apart from the more rugged mountain ranges. The Park's managers are very interested in statistical totals and an attempt has been made to answer some frequently-asked questions: how many people; how many livestock; how much land?

These are more than usually difficult to answer, for two reasons: firstly, the movement of people and their livestock to and from the Park; secondly, the change in cropping areas in response to changes in rainfall and groundwater. The estimates below are "best guesses" and probably conservative. Two sets are given: "Minimum" ie after an extended drought, and "Maximum" after a particularly good monsoon season.

Two key statistics do not fit these categories. Dryland cropping requires rain to fill the catchments - no rain, no cropping. However, the area of land that has been disturbed for the purpose of dryland cropping remains virtually unchanged from one cropping season to the next to the next: dry, furrowed and with virtually no ground cover. Monsoon rains cause flooding, a short burst of grass and plant germination including dormant crop seeds from the previous harvest then, within a few weeks, the area has been ploughed, seeded and is covered by a new crop.

The second statistic is the area visited by herders and livestock. In years of higher rainfall, these are likely to get most of their feed requirements from land adjacent to the village and through grazing crop residues and stubble; in drought periods, herders will range throughout the Park's lowland and foothills. As a result, "Minimum" and "Maximum" should be interpreted as estimates of the total area which might have been be affected by that particular activity, at some time. They are not mutually exclusive, the animal husbandry estimate will include all the dryland cropping area.

• Overall, it is speculated that farming activities already have made the greatest long-term impact on KNP's total physical and natural environment. The irrigated areas are small and distinct, clustered in clearly-defined locations with access to pumped or spring water. However, dryland fields are much greater in extent and more ephemeral in definition; grazing areas already extend throughout much of the Park's lowlands, with intensity of use dependent upon climatic conditions at the time.
• The number of domesticated herbivores well exceeds the Park's populations of ibex, urial and chinkara.
• In sum, farming has already affected possibly half of the total area of KNP, albeit at a fairly low level of intensity in some areas.
• At least one-sixth and possibly one-third of the Park's land has had significant disturbance as a result of dryland farming, with a likely permanent loss in the diversity of botanical species.
• Irrigated agriculture dominates the utilisation of water; utilisation by humans for drinking and domestic needs, plus water for farm livestock probably constitute the second largest use of the Park's water.
• The erection of innumerable banks and diversionary channels associated with the dryland cropping systems will have significantly altered the hydrological systems within the Park.
  

All such impacts are in stark contrast to the opinions voiced in 1974, which foreshadowed a Park devoid of people within ten years of establishment. What might happen in the future?

• Migration cycles
  The pattern of inward and outward migratory flows in response to drought and rain is well known and has a long history. Anecdotal evidence suggest that human populations more than double during inflow events; livestock figure probably rise by a higher margin.
• Increasing human population in KNP
  The underlying trend in these migratory cycles points to an increasing number of people within the Park and dependent upon the land's resources. Continued population growth outside the Park means that people are looking for land: although KNP is a marginal area, people are under pressure to find a place to live and settle, even if only on a temporary basis after the monsoon rains.
• Increasing farm animal populations in KNP
  People will bring their farm livestock, a major item of movable liquid capital.
• More pressure on water
  Growth in human and animal numbers will increase the demand for water. The efficiency, and relatively low cost, of small diesel pumps will result in wells being more easily financed and dug, using private funds.
• More pressure on land
  The underlying expansions in populations and water use will result in more land being converted to permanent irrigation, for dryland cropping and, particularly, increased grazing pressures.
• Continued conversion of dryland fields to irrigated fields
  Small areas of dryland fields are already being converted to irrigated fields throughout the Park. Given that these are usually flat, covered in sediments from previous flooding and have already been extensively worked, established dryland fields are prime candidates for conversion if groundwater can be located nearby.
• Local intensification
  Within the irrigated areas, there will be a continuing growth in intensification, as farmers attempt to increase the yield per unity of land, to maximize the efficiency of water use. This will mean more use of inorganic fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides.
• Increasingly skewed land ownership patterns
  Increases in intensification will be quite expensive. Wells must be dug, bores drilled, pumps purchased and distribution systems developed. Credit will be provided from outsiders, merchants and landlords, who will gradually obtain greater leverage within the economic environment of the Park.
• Use of chemicals
  Use of fertilizers and pesticides on irrigated crops is likely to increase as farmers intensify production from limited areas of irrigated land.
• More competition between Park fauna and farming
  The net result will be greater competition between KNP's indigenous Park fauna and farmers, particularly with regard to grazing. This will - as always - be accentuated immediately after the monsoon periods, when grazing becomes relatively easier and herd numbers multiply.
• Further degradation of vegetation and wildlife habitat
  The already degraded vegetation will continue to decline in cover, vigor and productivity, as long as uncontrolled cutting for fuelwood and heavy browsing by stock continues.
• Improved water supplies
  The improvement of water supplies is likely to result in an even greater increase in population of the Park, unless restrictions on tenure and population movement are imposed.
• Relationship with wildlife
  People (farmers) are unlikely to be sympathetic to restrictions designed to protect wildlife in KNP, unless they can see some tangible benefits to them and their livelihood.
• Revegetation prospects
  Although potential for planting of suitable tree species and other forms of revegetation exist, this is unlikely without tangible benefits to farmers, and while people are so concerned about their short-term survival.
  
  

To ensure a sustainable future for the National Park (and its residents), Park management will need to give priority to seeking (with farmers and other stakeholders) solutions to reducing the impact of farming and daily living activities of over 50000 people.

Some solutions may involve technical innovation, while others will entail social innovations such as the development of community institutions to assist with Park management and tourism. In all instances, the required improvements to farming and social systems in the Park will need planning, trial and support by government and other institutions committed to sound people and wild life management.

This study did not set out to recommend management strategies for the Park or improved farming or grazing practices. However, eleven examples are given below of major issues that would need to be addressed in a sound management strategy to illustrate the breadth of intervention that would be needed in developing farming and livelihood systems that are compatible with the objectives of managing such a valuable National Park in the future.

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